Introduction

While social media—as we think of it today—may have started out as simply a novel and riveting distraction, it has evolved in both capacity and potential[1]. Indeed, social media has also hosted pivotal movements such as the #metoo movement hashtag trend in 2017 on X (formerly Twitter)[2]. While the Twitter virality of the hashtag was sparked by actor Alyssa Milano[3], Tarana Burke originated the movement in 2006 in support of and solidarity with other Black girls and women (and other girls and women of Color) who had experienced sexual assault[4] [5]. Over a decade later, the movement soared into public consciousness by means of the #metoo Twitter hashtag ⁴ [6] [7].

Given its historic nature^{7 8}, scholars have explored the ongoing and groundbreaking global impact of the #metoo movement. Many researchers utilized social media data to support their studies, particularly those qualitative in nature; scholars utilized techniques such as content analysis to analyze #metoo tweets^{4 [8]}. Other scholars utilized additional methods, such as data mining[9], to glean insights from these posts. Regardless of data collection and analysis methods, data ethics must be observed when obtaining social media data. All data collection must be done ethically but researchers conducting scholarship with very sensitive data, such as tweets recounting stories of sexual violence, have an even greater responsibility to maintain the highest standard of research ethics.

How to Collect Social Media Data Ethically

In addition to typical research ethics, such as informed consent, scholars utilizing social media data must take additional precautions when conducting this form of research. Researchers and non-profit organizations alike have pointed out the challenging nature of this task given the general lack of standardized protocols for ethical social media research practices[10] [11] [12] [13]. However, we do note that the Association of Internet Researchers have delineated a list of policies for ethically engaging with data gleaned from social media[14]. We also acknowledge that any existing recommended precautions are also likely to change depending on the nature of the social media platform that researchers are using for data collection¹¹: protocols designed for YouTube may not entirely apply to platforms such as Instagram.

Despite the differences between platforms, Harrington clarifies that ethical scholars must still become familiar with the platform(s) they plan to mine for data in order to “understand how platform affordances shape user conduct and the norms and genre fostered by the platform.”¹¹ Researchers still shoulder the responsibility of ensuring that all social media scholarship is grounded in the core principles of ethical research^{11 13} such as the Belmont Report’s[15] foundational standards of respect, beneficence, and justice. Indeed, on the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative Program (CITI) website, the organization states that the evolution of technology demands that scholars evolve along with it particularly in terms of approaches to ethics.¹³

Best Practices in Ethical Data Collection

Harrington acknowledges the inherent challenges of adapting to an evolving technological landscape and, specifically, conducting ethical research with social media data: “The frankness of [some] posts…can provide rich data, but its ethical use presents challenges. Asking [social media] users for their informed consent to collect data may be intrusive and, in many cases, impractical.”¹⁰ Regardless of these challenges, social media researchers remain responsible for ethically engaging with social media data, and doing so with intentionality. A noteworthy rule of thumb discussed by Ford and colleagues is for researchers to either avoid data mining from private areas on social media platforms (e.g., closed Facebook groups) or to seek informed consent[16]. The average social media user is, after all, unlikely to consider that their posts may be mined for research purposes[17]. However, some scholars have found that, when asked, users still expected researchers to seek their consent before using their data[18].

Harrington¹¹ recommends using a “case-by-case” approach when deciding how to best study sensitive social media data in an ethical manner. Social media that is qualitative in nature is not homogenous[19]; neither should be the research ethics approaches of social media researchers¹⁸. In the case of analysis on posts discussing topics such as sexual violence, ethical social media research practices include centering the perspectives, personhood, and wellbeing of the survivors whose data is being analyzed[20].

Scholars studying sexual violence stories shared on social media strove to ensure ethical qualitative research methods by censoring the images they included in their study[21] and general de-identification (e.g., removing usernames)[22]. Another scholar brought her concerns, as any scholar should, to her university’s board of ethics to discuss how to most ethically study stories of sexual violence shared on sites like Reddit[23]. Finally, Hennell and colleagues offered a delineation of some of their efforts to ensure ethical research practices:

“The research was discussed with potential participants in face-to-face meetings, with study information provided, and consent was established. Consent was subsequently re-confirmed through social media after 24 hours…[there was also] an anticipatory and pre-study review of ethical considerations. Following this, the study then became the subject of ethical scrutiny by the formally constituted institutional Faculty Ethics Committee (FEC).”¹⁹

Despite the ambiguity produced by a lack of universal standards for social media research ethics, social media scholars have shown that there are still many strategies for ensuring an ethical approach.

Conclusion

Dr. Danah Boyd, Microsoft Research scholar, observed, “Social media is not just an activity; it governs how people interact with each other and shapes their perceptions of reality.” As such, social media scholars have an ethical obligation to treat social media data as representations of the human experience rather than just datapoints. One set of guidelines for ethical social media research refers to this responsibility as “duty of care” or researchers’ responsibility to prioritize the safety of study participants, scholars, and society in general[24]. Part of this “duty of care” extends to protecting against bots seeking to infiltrate the social media research process; failure to do so will likely jeopardize the legitimacy of the entire study.

Furthermore, the rigor of qualitative analysis is commonly called into question in ways that quantitative research is not. While claims of the illegitimacy of qualitative research are unwarranted, the fact that these inquisitions occur is all the more reason to protect the integrity, rigor, and ethics of qualitative research. This is particularly true for research processes susceptible to bot infiltration, such as those involved in social media research. Strategies for detecting bot activity while conducting research are provided in our resource list above. In summary, ethical research methods scholars protect not only the people involved in the study but also the entire qualitative research process.

Take Away

Social media scholars have an ethical responsibility to view social media data as reflections of human experience, not just data points. Navigating informed consent, privacy, and platform-specific nuances requires a case-by-case approach, careful de-identification, and adherence to ethical principles like respect, beneficence, and justice. By prioritizing consent, minimizing harm, and upholding high ethical standards, researchers can ensure integrity while offering valuable insights into the digital landscape.

[1] Ortiz-Ospina, E. The rise of social media. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/rise-of-social-media

[2] Ferrière, C. #metoo and Twitter: The Feminist Movement on Social Media. The University of Arizona Library. https://opentextbooks.library.arizona.edu/hrsmwinter2022/chapter/special-topics-me-too/

[3] Mueller, A., Wood-Doughty, Z., Amir, S., Dredze, M., Nobles, A. L. Demographic Representation and Collective Storytelling in the Me Too Twitter Hashtag Activism Movement. Proc ACM Hum Comput Interact. https://doi.org/10.1145/3449181

[4] Burke, T. History & Inception. me too. https://metoomvmt.org/get-to-know-us/history-inception/

[5] Burke, T. Me Too is a movement, not a moment. TED. https://www.ted.com/talks/tarana_burke_me_too_is_a_movement_not_a_moment?subtitle=en

[6] Brown, D. 19 million tweets later: A look at #MeToo a year after the hashtag went viral. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/10/13/metoo-impact-hashtag-made-online/1633570002/

[7] Park, A. #MeToo reaches 85 countries with 1.7M tweets. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/metoo-reaches-85-countries-with-1-7-million-tweets/

[8] Hosterman, A. R., Johnson, N. R., Stouffer, R. & Herring, S. Twitter, Social Support Messages and the #MeToo Movement. The Journal of Social Media in Society. https://thejsms.org/index.php/JSMS/article/view/475/198

[9] Georgetown University. #MeToo Movement Twitter Data Mined by Computer Science Professor. https://www.georgetown.edu/news/metoo-movement-twitter-data-mined-by-computer-science-professor/

[10] Harrington, C. Making ethical judgement calls about qualitative social media research on sensitive issues. International Journal of Social Research Methodology. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2024.2393796

[11] Reagle, J. Disguising Reddit sources and the efficacy of ethical research. Ethics and Information Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-022-09663-w

[12] Hibbin, R. A., Samuel, G. & Derrick, G. E. From “a Fair Game” to “a Form of Covert Research”: Research Ethics Committee Members’ Differing Notions of Consent and Potential Risk to Participants Within Social Media Research. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1177/1556264617751510

[13] CITI. Ethical Challenges and Considerations for IRB Review. https://about.citiprogram.org/blog/ethical-challenges-and-considerations-for-irb-review-of-social-media-research/

[14] the Association of Internet Researchers. Internet Research: Ethical Guidelines 3.0. https://aoir.org/reports/ethics3.pdf

[15] Belmont Report & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[16] Ford, E., Shepherd, S., Jones, K. & Hassan, L. Toward an Ethical Framework for the Text Mining of Social Media for Health Research: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Digital Health.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2020.592237

[17] University of Pennsylvania. Use of Social Media as a Research Activity. https://irb.upenn.edu/homepage/social-behavioral-homepage/guidance/types-of-social-behavioral-research/use-of-social-media-as-a-research-activity/

[18] Williams, M. L., Burnap, P., Sloan, L., Jessop, C. & Lepps, H. “Users’ Views of Ethics in Social Media Research: Informed Consent, Anonymity, and Harm.” https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S2398-601820180000002002/full/html

[19] Hennell, K. Piacentini, M. & Limmer, M. Ethical Dilemmas Using Social Media in Qualitative Social Research: A Case Study of Online Participant Observation. Sociological Research Online. https://doi.org/10.1177/1360780419888933

[20] Campbell, R., Goodman-Williams, R., & Javorka, M. A trauma-informed approach to sexual violence research ethics and open science. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519871530

[21] Mendes, K., Keller, J. & Ringrose, J. Digitized narratives of sexual violence: Making sexual violence felt and known through digital disclosures. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818820069

[22] Webb, A. Study Recruitment and Social Media. Indiana University School of Medicine Bioethics Blog. https://medicine.iu.edu/blogs/bioethics/study-recruitment-and-social-media

[23] O’Neill, T. ‘Today I Speak’: Exploring How Victim-Survivors Use Reddit. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. https://www.crimejusticejournal.com/article/view/893/656

[24] York University. Guidelines for the Use of Social Media Data in Research. https://www.york.ac.uk/media/staffhome/research/documents/researchgovernance/codeofethics/Guidelines%20for%20the%20Use%20of%20Social%20Media%20Data%20in%20Research%20for%20web%20page.pdf